Typology of Forged Manuscripts

The typology of forged manuscripts adopted by the project separates forgeries along four axes: support, use, content, and script. In the database these are listed with a forward slash (/) between them. Subcategories are listed in brackets — for example, Reuse (Secondary Use) or Copy (Exact).

Previous typologies of forged papyri, though resting on excellent work, have encoded category errors. Traditionally, papyrus fakes have been classified in to three broad categories: those written in pseudoscripts; composites made by joining parts of multiple original texts; and those which made textual sense, either copied or composed. Although this broadly describes the types of papyrus forgeries encountered, as a typology it mixes designations based on script, materiality, and textual content.

By way of producing a more robust typology, we first separate forgeries along four axes: support, use, content, and script. As elaborated below, these attempt to capture the nature of the material used; the way in which it is (re)used; the type of script employed; and a characterisation of the content. This means that “composite papyri” are not a category in themselves, but a subcategory in support, while pseudoscript texts are noted in script (simulated) and content (nonsense). Copies and compositions, meanwhile, are able to be more effectively differentiated from one another.

Support

Ancient

The support is an authentically ancient piece of papyrus, parchment, or ostracon.

Composite

Pieces of papyrus, parchment, linen, or other material support from separate original manuscripts, attached together to form a single sheet, thus creating a new artefact.

Modern

A material support constructed in the modern period is used for a forgery.

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Use

First Use

The papyrus or ostracon is used for the first time to create a forgery.

Reuse

• Palimpsest: Existing text is erased and a new one written over it.
• Secondary Use: The reuse of the back of an existing ancient text.
• Supplementary Use: Modern additions are made to traces of a pre-existing ancient text.
• Reconstituted Use: The arrangement of fragments of ancient text without modern additions to constitute a new textual artefact.

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Script

Simulated Alphabet

Fabricated alphabetic forms: the majority of forms are not identifiable, even if some resemble real forms.

Adapted Alphabet

Letters from an identifiable alphabet or alphabets mixed with invented forms.

Aspirational

Script is a real alphabet that aspires to reproduce a genuine consistent script.

Authentic

The papyrus contains genuine ancient script.

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Content

Nonsense

The text makes no sense either because there was no attempt to create or copy coherent text, or because fragments of authentic text which were recombined to make the forgery do not together construct coherent text.

Composition

A text substantially composed, either physically or textually, by the forger. This category can be subdivided as follows:

• Augmented text: A new text is added to authentic text already present on the support.
• Patchwork text: Selections from either one or multiple texts have been combined and reproduced as a single new text, with or without additional composition by the forger.
• Inspired text: The text is inspired by ancient traditions, whether by genre or by mention of a lost work or author, but a specific model was not used.

Copy

A copy or version of an already known text, being either:

• Exact text: The forgery reproduces the exact text of an existing model, though it may have an independent or modified format or accidental variations from the model.
• Adaptation text: A text which has been copied in part or substantially from an existing model, but in which variations from or minor additions to the existing text have been deliberately introduced.

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